Franklin's Economic Education of America

H. W. Brand’s designation of Benjamin Franklin as “The First American” derives from his personification of the ‘American Dream’. The notion that any child, no matter their background or circumstance, could progress through the social strata of society by hard work and perseverance has come to define American culture. Brett aptly described Franklin’s life as a model for the “true rags to riches example of how one can come from nothing to achieving so much in a land of freedom and opportunity” (Kaup). Franklin was hardly ignorant, and accepted that people and society were often cruel, prejudiced and innately fallible. More importantly though, both society and individuals were capable of improvement. Franklin held the “fundamental optimism concerning the malleability of human society” emblematic of the Enlightenment (Kelleter 79). Where he differentiated himself was in the process of achieving an improved state. Rather than orchestrating change through a top-down approach that dictated the systems and institutions governing society, Franklin sought to educate the public through communicative reason. Harnessing individual aspirations to the possibility of a better life through gradual self-improvement would more effectively improve the community. Franklin sought to impart his knowledge “to benefit the young reader, by showing him from my example, and my success in emerging from poverty” (Houston 34). He carefully structured his dictum in a way calibrated to influence the widest and most varied American audience (Forde 357). Franklin’s station as a publisher gave him access to a vast audience to whom he could broadcast his content. He structured his works to abide by the belief that “writing should primarily be judged by its practical effects and usefulness” (Isaacson 3). Through his subtle and logical methods, Franklin persuaded the citizens of America to improve themselves and affectively improve the institutional systems that govern society. Franklin sought to systematically improve the social quality of life by educating his contemporaries on three levels: personally, interpersonally, and as a cohesive community.

Individual Economic Theory

Franklin’s desire to educate his contemporaries stemmed from his conception of himself as a common man. His progression from humble beginnings to a self-made man of substance provided Franklin with profound insights into the minds of citizens of different classes. He accepted and understood the natural impulse for material advancement that pervaded his society, and systematically provided advice on the best methods for achieving economic success. “Man is a creature altogether selfish, and that all our Actions have at Bottom, a View to private Interest” (Franklin 200). Rather than condemn the egocentricity of the desire to accumulate wealth, Franklin demonstrates that the qualities necessary to do so paradoxically exist in frugality and moderation. Advice to a Young Tradesman, Written by and Old One contains Franklin’s educational intent in the title. “In short, the Way to Wealth, if you desire it, is as plain as the Way to Market. It depends chiefly on two words, Industry and Frugality” and the perils that the abuse of credit can produce (Franklin 321). In order to elicit a sense of camaraderie with his audience, Franklin created the persona of “Poor Richard” Saunders, whose axioms were short, easy to remember, and provocative. Most importantly, “Poor Richard” was a persona with whom readers could identify with more so than a ‘tradesman’ or printer. The proverbs that made Poor Richard’s Almanac a leading piece of literature among agricultural Americans “were all about getting money, or saving it” (Houston 24). By fictionalizing the story a destitute farmer who improves his status by promoting virtuous, frugal living, Franklin ‘reveals’ their worth. Then the Almanac itself, “[written] with no other View than that of the publick Good”, dually serves the to enhance public utility in weather forecasting as well as increasing moral, fiscally responsible behavior (Franklin 1185).

Just as important to living in a fiscally responsible manner was the quality of prudency. Economic success and moral behavior were far from mutually exclusive in Franklins mind. “Franklin leaves very much open the possibility of acquiring riches, learning, and power while at the same time meriting a good character of reputation.” (Forde 359) As Scott Singer noted,

“Franklin seems to claim that, while the actual borrowing and lending of credit are important parts of a young tradesman's financial repertoire, what is most important about credit is that having good financial credit and having good credit as a man are inextricably linked. As such, Franklin is advising his young friend to show as much care when dealing with his own reputation as he would when dealing with his actual line of credit.” (Singer)

Indeed, Franklin did devote large portions of Advice to a Young Tradesmen and Rules Proper to be Observed in Trade to emphasizing the importance of public perception. “Strive to maintain a fair character in the world: That will be the best means for advancing credit” (Franklin 346). In Franklin’s mind, it was not enough to produce a quality service, judiciously pay off creditors and generally operate a fair business. They must additionally portray courteous and respectable behavior to customers and maintain the appearance of hard work in order to prosper. Franklin’s Autobiography describes his personification of these qualities and the benefits they afforded him in various professions in to illustrate their universally applicable merits. “In order to secure my Credit and Character as a Tradesman, I took care not only to be in Reality Industrious and frugal, but to avoid all Appearances of the contrary…I went on swimmingly” (Franklin 125). This serves as a testament to commercial success’ reliance upon the reputation and trust of others built through habitual behavior. Franklin established a stratagem for economic success through his life that he reproduced in his literature to educate others. “As an incentive to follow this method, Franklin portrays the virtues as instrumental, as useful”(Forde 358). He had learned that to attain wealth and the satisfaction that accompanies prosperity, it is necessary to be, or at very least appear, virtuous. Thus virtuosity heightens personal utility. Individuals properly striving to satisfy their natural desire for wealth will maximize production, a process culminating in maximum communal utility.

Marriages Effect on Economy

In his desire to improve the social fabric of his community through virtuous economic behavior, Franklin was not satisfied with educating the individual. Since people did not live solitary lives, it was not enough for every citizen to maximize personal utility in their daily actions. Social order, Franklin believed, was grounded in the relationships established to satisfy each-others’ needs and interests. Therefore, Franklin sought to improve the functioning of personal relationships within the community, especially that of husband and wife. Social conventions such as marriage offered the stability requisite to live a virtuous life, and engender the proper action he valued so highly. According to his Advice to a Young Man on the Choice of a Mistress, “It is the Man and Woman united that make the compleat human Being” (Franklin). Together in matrimony the two individuals complement the other in a way mutually beneficial to both, making them more productive. “If you get a prudent healthy Wife, your Industry in your Profession, with her good Economy, will be a Fortune Sufficient” (Franklin). Both husband and wife’s unique characteristics combine to make them “more likely to succeed in the World” and individually increase their value to society (Franklin). The role of the woman was crucial to Franklin’s attitude. His description of the feminine role as ‘prudent’ and having ‘good Economy’ would help the man leverage his industrious nature into economic success. By becoming productive and thriving financially, society would benefit. Perhaps more importantly, the couple would maximize virtuous, personal utility. Franklin echoed this sentiment in Anthony Afterwit’s attitude toward his spendthrift spouse, stating, “If she can conform to this new Scheme of Living [frugality], we shall be the happiest couple perhaps in the Province” (Franklin 187). Frugality generated happiness, and as long as women controlled their appetites for luxury, the industriousness nature of their husbands would improve the community. Men were guilty of such vices as well, as Franklin asserted in Celia Single’s denunciation of idle, wasteful and unproductive men whom Franklin equally desired to criticize (Franklin 189). Living off one’s own industry and labor, not falling peril to the comforts of extravagance and idleness should be the attitude and aspiration of each individual within a society, and represents the most practical path to social progression. In order to resonate more effectually with average citizens, Franklin carefully constructed the Celia Single, Anthony Afterwit essay as a didactic allegory for the entire community. It was intended to cause the audience to question, and amongst themselves participate in a dialogue about the merits of efficient action as were posed in Advice to a Young Tradesman. The interaction between husband and wife serves to enhance the levels of utility that would have been achieved independent of the other.

Institutional Economic Influence

Franklin applied his analyses of the interactions of individuals and the relationships to their aggregate effect on the community as a whole. In the context of economic utility, “Commerce provided a model for cooperative social relations based on the power of needs and interests: humans join together because they are useful to eachother. (Houston 26). Just as man and wife unite in marriage, so too do they individually and jointly enter into a contract with society with the expectation that it would increase their utility. Franklin understood cooperation was based on utility and must be collectively nurtured with political and economic considerations paid to various groups. Franklin sought to establish new institutions that would enhance social utility by improving the quality of daily life.

In Silence Dogood no. 10, Franklin used his fictional widow narrator to recommend the institution of a voluntary social welfare system. “To be call’d An Office of Ensurance for Widows”, it would protect the families of deceased providers from destitution (Franklin 30). Hannah Fasick accurately infers that Franklin saw a major threat in an abundance of impoverished women, and the importance of preserving their ability to sustain even a basic level of subsistence. The subjugation of women in the educational system did not afford them skills necessary to earn an adequate income, and their membership in society required that their needs be satisfied (Fasick). By providing financial support for widows, the program would insure that the future of society, children, had the necessary means to develop into contributing citizens. Although the Office of Ensurance never came to fruition, Franklin’s attempt to evoke a sense of mutual interdependence among his audience availed itself in other endeavors. Franklin’s paper describing efficient systems for the protection of property rights revolutionized the process of combating fires. It “gave rise to a Project which soon followed it… The Utility of this Institution soon appear’d, and many more desiring to be admitted than we thought convenient for one Company, they were advised to form another” (Autobiography 174). The application of Franklins proposal was critical. Fire companies gained traction because they were useful in serving the communal economic interests. Under the guise of Richard Saunders he had written “Words may show a man’s Wit, but Actions his meaning” (Franklin 1187). Educing the sense of unity among his community held value, but only through action would a more desirable state be brought about.

Independence

Although Franklin did not realize it for most of his life, what his economically based educational teachings had been building towards far before the Stamp and Tea Acts was the unification of America. ‘Without union, improvement was not possible. Political institutions defined the conditions under which groups and regions interacted; individual character contributed to the proper functioning of those institutions” (Houston 222). The economic exploitation of the American colonies served as the impetus for revolution, violating the principals Franklin had advocated in the individuals and institutions.

Simply put, Great Britain’s rule over the colonies was intensely detrimental to the economic well being of American colonists. Franklin’s analysis of the criminal exportation policy in Rattle-Snakes for Felons could apply to many of the British transgressions, “That such Laws are against the Publick Utility, as they tend to prevent the IMPROVEMENT…of the Colonies” (Franklin 359). As the ‘mother-country’, Parliament had the duty of providing colonists, then members of British society, with just systems that were useful. However, the systems Britain imposed did not adequately protect the ability of Americans to pursue economic interests. The peopling of he colonies with criminals, taxation without representation, lack of defense, and limitations on trade requiring importation of all manufactured goods, were inefficient and violated the responsibilities a government is intended to afford its citizens. Molly Jaffe wrote, “Taxing everyone equally and refusing to exempt those associated with the crown serves as an unconcealed indicator of America’s impending revolution.”(Jaffe). Unequal treatment of British citizenry was an inefficiency that needed a remedy. Franklin felt a unified set of colonies with representation could resolve the problems Americans faced; “Join or Die”. His theory, “that an union of the colonies is absolutely necessary for their preservation” stemmed from his views on mutual interdependence of communities. Hannah’s characterization of Franklin’s message as a “political ultimatum” perfectly encapsulates his intent to reorganize the colonies to better suit economic interests (Fasick). Only when it became apparent that reform was not going to be undertaken by Britain, and that the impression of utility-detracting systems would persist, did Franklin resign to outright rebellion. The economic system inflicted upon the economies ultimately led to their unification against a common enemy.

Conclusion

“Franklin’s story is the story of a man… the story of the birth of America – an America this man discovered in himself, then helped create in the world at large” (Brands 8). Brand may have been referring to the more literal sense of ‘creating America’ as an internationally recognized nation, but I believe he is referring to Franklin’s creation of the American way of life. He discovered the infinite opportunity that America presented. Franklin’s works both directly and indirectly informed the public of the best way to achieve success economically. He had travelled the road to success, and strove to make it possible for every member of society to do the same. Improving the world around him may have been Franklin’s ultimate goal, but he understood the individual was the fundamental unit of the polity (Houston 222). Educating most basic constituents, the people, would most effectively reform the institutions of society. As influential as he may have been in designing the Constitution and Declaration of Independence, it is his role as an educator in shaping the American people that makes him ‘The First American”.

Works Cited

Brands, H.W.. The First American. New York, New York: Doubleday, 2000.

Fasick, Hannah. Slithering Franklin. Web blog post. ENGL 274: Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment. Blogger, Web. 2 Nov. 2011.

-Silence Dogood- Defender of the Fair Sex. Web blog post. ENGL 274: Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment. Blogger, Web. 12 Sep. 2011.

Franklin, Benjamin. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin 2^nd ed. Edited by Edmund S Morgan. New Haven, Connecticut:, Yale University Press. New Haven Connecticut, 1964.

- Silence Dogood no 10. The New England Courant, 13 Aug, 1722.

- Poor Richards Almanac 1733

- Rattle-Snakes for Felons. The Pennsylvania Gazette, 9 May, 1751.

- Celia Single. The Pennsylvania Gazette 24, July 1732.

- Anthony Afterwit. The Pennsylvania Gazette 10, July 1732.

- Advice to a Young Man on the Choice of a Mistress.

- Advice to a Young Tradesman, Written by and Old One. Piladelphia, New Printing Office, 1748.

- Men are Naturally Benevolent as Well as Selfish. The Pennsylvania Gazette, 30 Nov, 1732.

Forde, Steven. Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography and the Education of America. The American Political Science Review, Vol. 86, No. 2 (Jun., 1992), pp. 357-368

Houston, Alan. Benjamin Franklin & The Politics of Improvement. New Haven, Connectuct: Yale University Press, 2008.

Isaacson, Walter. A Benjamin Franklin Reader. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003.

Jaffe, Molly. A Little Background Research. Web blog post. ENGL 274: Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment. Blogger, Web. 17 Nov. 2011.

Kaup, Brett. Proud to be an American. . Web blog post. ENGL 274: Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment. Blogger, Web. 16 Nov. 2011.

Kramnick, Isaac, ed. Introduction. The Portable Enlightenment Reader. New York: Penguin, 1995.

Singer, Scott. Credit of Two Sorts. Web blog post. ENGL 274: Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment. Blogger, Web. 14 Dec. 2011.

An Exercise in Virtue, and Persuasion!

Franklin's short essay, "Self-Denial Not the Essence of Virtue" is a wonderfully interesting piece on the roots of virtue in men and itself an exercise in persuasion. His argument presents an initial claim; dissects it, finding it to be false; then presents a modified version of the original claim, which he comes to accept. But how convinced are we by his reasoning?

His first model is as follows: "without Self-Denial there is no Virtue, and that the greater the Self-Denial the greater the Virtue" (242). Through example he reasons that by this logic, that we check our temptation to vice through the practice of the contrary virtue. But, in the long term, this diminishes the force of the temptation, and one would have to return to his vices in order to be virtuous. I'm not sure this argument is entirely convincing. Franklin doesn't explicitly define the practice of virtue, if one cannot practice it anymore, is he not just living the virtue?

His second model replaces virtue with merit, thus any act of Self-Denial deserves merit & praise. This seems to more aptly fit his claims, though he still draws heavily on examples, like this instance of Honesty: "If you were to employ Servants in Affairs of Trust, would you not bid more for one you know was naturally honest, than for one naturally roguish, but who had lately acted honestly" (243). Honesty is a virtue Franklin holds high, yet what about all the people he lied to creating the Silence Dogood pseudonym? Does his intention come into play here?

He concludes that Virtue is Virtue, with or without context; and because virtue is merit-based, it is absolute. It doesn't matter if your nature predisposes you to virtuous undertakings, or if the merits of virtue are "practis'd with or against our inclinations" (244). Franklin also decides that self denial has no inherent goodness or wickedness, only as it is used. But what struck me were his final remarks: "And he who does a foolish, indecent or wicked Thing, meerly because 'tis contrary to his Inclination, […] is not practising the reasonable Science of Virtue, but is a lunatick" (244). I believe Franklin to be of good virtue, but would he then consider the act of writing the Silence Dogood letter one of a lunatic? Or would Franklin consider that the virtue of the results of his deceit justify the means?

Silence Dogood and Freedom of Speech

Ben Franklin’s compilation of Silence Dogood letters certainly weren’t published with the intent to be that serious, as many of the letters are quite satirical. For example, the simple fact that he wrote disguised as a woman hints at the fact that Franklin was not writing in the most serious of tones. However, despite the inherently comical nature of the letters, Franklin still raised many compelling points with regards to societal issues being addressed at the time.

In letter number three, Franklin proclaims: “It is undoubtedly the Duty of all persons to serve the Country they live in, according to their Abilities…” (9). For Silence Dogood, this most likely meant entertaining readers of the New England Courant through biweekly publishing’s. Yet this statement also seemed to be a call for other members of society to take action in order to make sure they were serving their country in the best way possible. This may have been through one’s occupation, charity, or simply through abiding by state laws.

Franklin then later builds on his call to the citizenry as he touches on more issues with regards to the state and their power (mainly in letter number eight). While he plucked the words from the London Journal, he writes that he much preferred the phrasing “to any Thing of my own, and therefore shall present it to your Readers this week without any further Preface” (24). He brings to light the ideas of freedom of thought, freedom of wisdom, public liberty, and most importantly the idea of freedom of speech. Franklin believed all these too be inherently tied together, and most importantly that freedom of speech was a right that every citizen deserved as long as one does not infringe on the speech of another. Furthermore, Franklin’s belief that “This sacred Privilege is so essential to free Governments,” that if one were to attempt to overthrow a democratic society then they “must begin by subduing the Freeness of Speech” (24).

Franklin published these letters in the 1720s, a solid amount of time before the American Revolution, and drafting of the Constitution and Bill of Rights. Thus for him to publish such ideas in a public forum at a time when many people in the colonies had essentially no voice in society is fairly astounding. Franklin was certainly well ahead of his time with regards to holding the proper beliefs for what a functional democratic society needed. It’s still strikes me as very interesting though that he would publish all this under an alias and not as himself, as (all joking aside) much of his early writing was extremely brilliant.

Silence Dogood - Defender of the Fair Sex

Franklin's portrayal of the fairer sex is quite impressive, and it becomes clear he is set not only on conquering and exploring moral issues, which apply to all people, but defending women against the tremendous problems, which faced them in this era. It is intriguing to me that a teenage boy, usually simultaneously fascinated and confused by women, could so accurately portray one and empathetically describe not only one woman’s problems, but also problems that all women face.

Women were perceived as ignorant and less serious than men, as addressed in Do Good #5. Dogood/Franklin retorts by arguing that any fault in women is mirrored if not surpassed by the same fault in men. Dogood explains that although men go out to work, “A woman’s work is never done”. “She” valiantly defends women further in this letter stating that any ignorance they are perceived to have is directly related to women’s inability to receive an education. “I have (says he) often thought of it as one of the most barbarous Customs in the World, considering us a civiliz’d and Christian Country, that we deny the Advantages of Learning to Women.” That Franklin would so boldly advocate women’s rights, and find it an important issue to bear upon at such a young age is impressive. Furthermore, he illustrates well why women act as they do, in the context of their upbringing and society’s expectations of them.

He further explores the rights and needs of women in Do Good #10 which describes the need for the creation of an office for widow’s insurance, in which all married couples contribute. Such an office would guarantee something to live off of if women are widowed. He constructs a sound argument by predicting problems that could occur in such a system and offering solutions such as in the event those who apply have a husband who is already sick, those who marry someone very old etc. “We have (says he) abundance of Women, who have been Bred well, and Liv’d well, Ruin’d in a few Years, and perhaps, left Young, with a House full of Children, and nothing to support them”

Dogood/ Franklin stands up for the rights of women and provides thought provoking justification for their behavior as well as a powerful argument for a social system which invests in women’s education and well being.

The Value of Anonymity

  Benjamin Franklin had more confidence as a teenager than some people ever have in their lives. In 1772, at 16 years old, Franklin submitted a total of 14 anonymous letters to one of the three newspapers in Boston at the time. Not only was he fearless when sharing his social commentary with the public, he had the guts to pose as someone under his older brother’s nose by disguising his handwriting and using the pseudonym Silence Dogood. He used his first few letters to build the persona and story around Dogood, portraying her as a woman who promised “once a Fortnight to present them with a short Epistle to add somewhat to their Entertainment.” The hip and witty Dogood drew readers to the New-England Courant by writing on a variety of topics including fashion, love, manners and education. I believe that Franklin was able to write with such freedom and spirit from the unintentional positive reinforcement he received behind the scenes.

       Benjamin worked at the print shop with his older brother James and he would hear him praising his letters out loud. Unbeknownst to James, the author of the letters was sitting right there and could not help but gain a sense of self-worth as a sixteen year old who has all of Boston to unknowingly critique his work. Not only did he win his brother’s admiration, but also when Benjamin mentioned he was a widow inclined to suitors he received letters from men asking to marry Silence Dogood. He felt the power of his letters when after six months he stopped writing and readers missed Dogood and wondered where she went. Benjamin was able to capture the experience of setting the type for something from his own hand and watch it go to print. This experience gave him the wherewithal to admit to his brother that he was the one who wrote the letters when James placed an ad in his paper asking if anyone could “give a true account of Mrs. Silence Dogood, whether dead or alive, married or unmarried.” Despite Benjamin’s popularity writing as Dogood, James was furious and Ben abandoned the apprenticeship to sail to Philadelphia and continue printing.

       The unique position Franklin found him as a relatively young writer helped give him the confidence and vision to continue on as a printer of his own words. He probably felt that if he can entertain Boston at age 16 what couldn’t he do? This also served as an opportunity to branch out from his brother and end the abusive relationship that he experienced as his apprentice. Silence Dogood helped him gain freedom as a printer and unbeknownst to Boston at the time, put him on the map as a commanding presence as a printer.

       The historical context from which Franklin wrote “Rules for the New England Courant” is worth analyzing to fully understanding Franklin’s intended meaning. In order to do so effectively, James Franklin’s Silence Dogood letter from the previous week of January 14- January 21, 1723, must be taken into account to understand the satiric nature of “Rules for the New England Courant.” The January 14 issue titled, “Essay against Hypocrites” was aimed at Cotton Mather, the most well known Puritan minster at the time and an advocate for the smallpox inoculation. Smallpox was a growing epidemic and the cure was promoted by Mather but discouraged by Franklin and his followers because of the fear that the remedy would spread it rather than stifle it. James Franklin wrote, “Essay against Hypocrites” to mock organized religion, represented by Cotton Mather. Authorities responded to his brash criticism of England’s church with the response, "the Tendency of the said Paper is to mock Religion, and bring it into Contempt, that the Holy Scriptures are therefore profanely abused, that the Reverend and faithful Ministers of the Gospel are injuriously Reflected on, His Majesty's Government affronted, and the Peace and good Order of his Majesty's Subjects of this Province disturbed, by the said Courant." James Franklin was arrested and taken to jail after the publication of “Essay against Hyporcrites” to be tried for seditious libel and publishing without authority. With James in jail, Benjamin published the next issue under his own name but did not reveal his true identity when responding to Mather’s allegations by publishing a faux retraction in the January 28 issue titled, “Rules for the New England Courant.” The issue was addressed to the “Author of the New-England Courant” and requested for some “method wherein to carry it on without ministring just occasion of Offence to any, especially to the polite and pious People, of whom there are considerable numbers in this land.” The introduction is a tongue-in-cheek stab at Mather and those who think The Courant should not publish anything interpreted as disrespectful of organized religion. Franklin is acting like his letter is on the behalf of the many who were offended by James’ “Essay against Hyporcrites,” though Benjamin is making his own case against those same “hyporcrites” in his list of rules.

       He references the adverse impact of having a “Bad name,” or a tarnished reputation on having one’s intended message misinterpreted. This is a reference to the fate of his brother James, who had been snubbed to the point where anything he wrote was taken out of context and shunned because of what the public thought his true intentions were. Franklin mentions the reference, “there can no good thing come out of that Paper,” to prove the point that the slander of Mather and the House committee on The Courant has put the paper in a no-win position because of its negative reviews by those who think their analysis should be taken seriously by everyone who reads The Courant. He pokes fun of the supposedly insightful and valid points made by Mather by suggesting that although he does not have the “knowledge and prudence” of others he thinks his suggestions for the paper made it list form should be taken into account. Franklin makes a direct stab at Mather by mocking the fact that religion is his “safety and security, and if we lose the Honour of that, no small part of our strength and Glory will be lost without it.” Franklin is suggesting that Mather only will permit literature strengthening his personal views, not free speech as shown in The Courant.

       Franklin makes his next satirical reference towards all men of God who are the “best of men” and should not be “profanely exposed.” Mather will not tolerate any publications that portray him in a negative light and Franklin references the negative impact of doing do, much like what happened to The New England Courant, by suggesting that the clergy will “improve their influence to the uttermost, to suppress your paper.” Franklin is showing that the real intention of the church is to censor anything that could be detrimental to the adherence to their views, and they will take actions against any detractor much like they did to James Franklin. Benjamin warns against offending any religious figures for the defamer will most certainly be sent to hell. He hits at a similar vein when he says to never quote a pious author and reference sacred scripture, indirectly referencing the actions of The Courant and the current situation James Franklin finds himself in due to his lack of support of Mather’s politics.

       Franklin continues his tongue-in-cheek satire of Mather and the church by promoting general references and the avoidance of naming anyone specifically, because this can offend “good people” and could result in a disturbance of the overall community. Franklin suggests that exposing men in power and with authority could result in the “crushing of your paper,” once again a reference to the ill fate of his brother. Franklin’s conclusion with the “plain Directions, which if wisely followed, will steer clear of Rocks, Shelves, and Quick-sands” are all made with the intention of showing the public that free speech is impossible when dealing with content that could portray the church in a negative light. Avoiding the criticism of “pious” men, avoiding the use of the sermon form in one’s papers, and sticking to general statements that will not offend anyone are the main points of Franklin’s list of suggestions. Each component of the list reflects Franklin’s satirical attempt to show the unfairness of the church when limiting free speech. Free speech is only tolerated if the church approves of the message.

       The historical context provided by James Franklin’s “Essay against Hypocrites” is crucial to the understanding of “Rules for the New England Courant.” Franklin’s list of suggestions may seem valid by those who are not aware of Cotton Mather’s criticism of the paper and the resulting consequences of James Franklin’s trial. One would be able to notice some aspect of sarcasm in this issue of The Courant, by reviewing the advertisement section at the end. The advertisement clarifying that Captain Christopher Taylor was not the author of two letters previously published in The Courant, and that he takes offense to the allegations, is completely sarcastic shown by his next statement that he did indeed write the last letter. Franklin writes this ridiculous advertisement to reflect the absurdity of the accusations made by Mather and a reader’s response that refuses to go along with whatever the church deems as slander. Despite the satiric nature of “The Rules for the New England Courant,” the paper set a precedent for using proper syntax and grammar in widely read publications. Newspapers at the time used sloppy sentence structure and word choice, but this would end with the standard set by The New England Courant.

April 2, 1722 • Silence Dogood #1

To the Author of the New-England Courant.

Sir,

It may not be improper in the first place to inform your Readers, that I intend once a Fortnight to present them, by the Help of this Paper, with a short Epistle, which I presume will add somewhat to their Entertainment.

And since it is observed, that the Generality of People, now a days, are unwilling either to commend or dispraise what they read, until they are in some measure informed who or what the Author of it is, whether he be poor or rich, old or young, a Schollar or a Leather Apron Man, &c. and give their Opinion of the Performance, according to the Knowledge which they have of the Author's Circumstances, it may not be amiss to begin with a short Account of my past Life and present Condition, that the Reader may not be at a Loss to judge whether or no my Lucubrations are worth his reading.

At the time of my Birth, my Parents were on Ship-board in their Way from London to N. England. My Entrance into this troublesome World was attended with the Death of my Father, a Misfortune, which tho' I was not then capable of knowing, I shall never be able to forget; for as he, poor Man, stood upon the Deck rejoycing at my Birth, a merciless Wave entred the Ship, and in one Moment carry'd him beyond Reprieve. Thus, was the first Day which I saw, the last that was seen by my Father; and thus was my disconsolate Mother at once made both a Parent and a Widow.

When we arrived at Boston (which was not long after) I was put to Nurse in a Country Place, at a small Distance from the Town, where I went to School, and past my Infancy and Childhood in Vanity and Idleness, until I was bound out Apprentice, that I might no longer be a Charge to my Indigent Mother, who was put to hard Shifts for a Living.

My Master was a Country Minister, a pious good-natur'd young Man, and a Batchelor: he labour'd with all his Might to instil vertuous and godly Principles into my tender Soul, well knowing that it was the most suitable Time to make deep and lasting Impressions on the Mind, while it was yet untainted with Vice, free and unbiass'd. He endeavour'd that I might be instructed in all that Knowledge and Learning which is necessary for our Sex, and deny'd me no Accomplishment that could possibly be attained in a Country Place; such as all Sorts of Needle-Work, Writing, Arithmetick, &c. and observing that I took a more than ordinary Delight in reading ingenious Books, he gave me the free Use of his Library, which tho' it was but small, yet it was well chose, to inform the Understanding rightly, and enable the Mind to frame great and noble Ideas.

Before I had liv'd quite two Years with this Reverend Gentleman, my indulgent Mother departed this Life, leaving me as it were by my self, having no Relation on Earth within my Knowledge.

I will not abuse your Patience with a tedious Recital of all the frivolous Accidents of my Life, that happened from this Time until I arrived to Years of Discretion, only inform you that I liv'd a chearful Country Life, spending my leisure Time either in some innocent Diversion with the neighbouring Females, or in some shady Retirement, with the best of Company, Books. Thus I past away the Time with a Mixture of Profit and Pleasure, having no affliction but what was imaginary, and created in my own Fancy; as nothing is more common with us Women, than to be grieving for nothing, when we have nothing else to grieve for.

As I would not engross too much of your Paper at once, I will defer the Remainder of my Story until my next Letter; in the mean time desiring your Readers to exercise their Patience, and bear with my Humours now and then, because I shall trouble them but seldom. I am not insensible of the Impossibility of pleasing all, but I would not willingly displease any; and for those who will take Offence were none is intended, they are beneath the Notice of Your Humble Servant,

SILENCE DOGOOD.

The New-England Courant, April 2, 1722